通往生命起源的化学之路

doi:10.6023/cjoc202605021

有机化学 ›› 2026, Vol. 46 ›› Issue (9): 3293-3316.DOI: 10.6023/cjoc202605021 上一篇下一篇

综述与进展

通往生命起源的化学之路

朱山辉^a, 刘天飞^a^,^b^,^*()

^a 南开大学化学学院有机新物质创造前沿科学中心天津 300071
^b 物质绿色创造与制造海河实验室天津 300192

收稿日期:2026-05-19 修回日期:2026-07-04 发布日期:2026-07-23
基金资助:
国家重点研发计划(2022YFB4101800); 国家自然科学基金(22171141); 国家自然科学基金(22193010); 国家自然科学基金(22193014); 全国重点实验室天津市重大专项(25ZXZSSS00700); 及中央高校基本科研业务费(020-63263149)

Chemical Pathways to the Origin of Life

Shanhui Zhu^a, Tianfei Liu^a^,^b^,^*()

^a State Key Laboratory and Institute of Elemento-Organic Chemistry, Frontiers Science Center for New Organic Matter, College of Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071
^b Haihe Laboratory of Sustainable Chemical Transformations, Tianjin 300192

Received:2026-05-19 Revised:2026-07-04 Published:2026-07-23
Contact:
^* E-mail: tianfeiliu@nankai.edu.cn
About author:
Dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of Professor Xikui Jiang.
Supported by:
National Key Research and Development Program of China(2022YFB4101800); National Natural Science Foundation of China(22171141); National Natural Science Foundation of China(22193010); National Natural Science Foundation of China(22193014); Tianjin Major Science and Technology Project for National Key Laboratories(25ZXZSSS00700); Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities(020-63263149)

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摘要/Abstract

回顾了目前关于生命起源化学演化路径的流行学术观点. 这些观点涵盖了通过深海地质样品分析、深空观测以及实验室中人工模拟与实验所揭示的可能途径, 展示了在地球早期环境中, 由无机物质合成脂肪酸、脂肪醇、烃类以及含氮、硫、磷有机化合物的过程. 此外, 介绍了基于蒋锡夔先生等发展的有机分子簇集与自卷理论所建设的原细胞理论及其功能构建实验的最新进展, 以及关于节律性与周期性有序结构的涌现、自我复制与演化、组装理论的相关内容. 最后回顾了最后的共同祖先理论与人工合成细胞的实验尝试. 该文可为生命起源的后续研究与地外生命探索研究提供重要参考.

关键词: 生命起源, 疏水亲脂相互作用, 组装理论, 原细胞, 人工合成细胞

Current popular academic viewpoints on the chemical evolutionary pathways to the origin of life are summarized. It contains possible pathways revealed by exploration of deep-sea geological samples, deep-space observations, and artificial laboratory simulations and experiments, revealing the synthesis of fatty acids, fatty alcohols, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen-, sulfur-, and phosphorus-containing organic compounds from inorganic matters in Earth’s initial environments. It also contains the latest advances in the theory of protocell and experiments for its functional construction based on the theory of the organic molecular aggregation and self-coiling developed by Prof. Xi-Kui Jiang et al., the emergence of rhythmic and periodic orders, self-replication and evolution, and the assembly theory. Finally, the theory of last universal common ancestor and experimental attempts at artificially synthesized cells are also reviewed. It can provide important references for future research on the origin of life and the search for extraterrestrial life.

Key words: the origin of life, hydrophobic-lipophilic interaction, assembly theory, protocell, artificial synthetic cell

引用此文

朱山辉, 刘天飞. 通往生命起源的化学之路[J]. 有机化学, 2026, 46(9): 3293-3316.

Shanhui Zhu, Tianfei Liu. Chemical Pathways to the Origin of Life[J]. Chinese Journal of Organic Chemistry, 2026, 46(9): 3293-3316.

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图/表 50

图式1. 从简单分子合成生命的基本组成单元

Scheme 1. Synthesis of basic building blocks of life from simple molecules

图1. Miller和Urey的实验装置示意图[30]

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the Miller-Urey experimental apparatus[30] A: the classic apparatus; B: the simplified apparatus.

图2. 古菌细胞膜的脂肪醇衍生物结构以及细菌和真核生物细胞膜的脂肪酸衍生物结构示意图[40]

Figure 2. Schematic diagrams of the structures of fatty alcohol derivatives in archaeal cell membranes and fatty acid derivatives in bacterial and eukaryotic cell membranes[40]

图3. 海底热液喷口的前生物合成模型

Figure 3. Prebiotic synthesis model at submarine hydrothermal vents In deep-sea hydrothermal vent systems, electrons generated from the oxidation of H2 and H2S in hydrothermal fluids are transported through porous and conductive metal sulfide chimney minerals toward the seawater-rock interface. At this interface, the reduction of molecules such as CO2, ${\text{NO}}_{\text{3}}^{－}$, ${\text{NO}}_{\text{2}}^{－}$ proceeds under the catalysis of metal sulfides, leading to the formation of diverse building blocks of life. These molecular precursors subsequently undergo condensation and polymerization reactions to produce biologically essential polymer.

图式2. 高度蛇纹石化的橄榄岩通过水合作用可以形成高浓度氢气的化学反应

Scheme 2. Chemical reactions in highly serpentinized peridotite that result in the formation of high-concentration hydrogen gas through hydration

图4. Kelley等拍摄的失落之城活火山口沉积物

Figure 4. Sediment from the active hydrothermal vent of the Lost City, as documented by Kelley et al. (A) Aragonite-rich sample collected near the summit of Poseidon; (B) Close-up of the typical brittle intergrowth between aragonite and natrolite within the sample (carbonate chimneys and vein materials in the active vent area are snow-white, highly porous, and easily fragmented); (C) Micrograph showing a reticulated, interwoven aragonite intergrowth, whose morphology resembles filamentous bacteria in diffuse-flow zones. The sample was collected from a several-centimeters-wide carbonate “artery” traversing the flank of the Poseidon massif, from which centimeter-long carbonate feather-like growths protrude from the vein

图式3. 溶解的二氧化碳在水相热液条件下发生的类似费-托的反应[45]

Scheme 3. Fischer-Tropsch reaction under hydrothermal conditions from the dissolved CO2 in the aqueous phase[45]

图5. 在海底热液环境中生成脂肪酸和脂肪醇的可能路径

Figure 5. Possible pathways for the formation of fatty acids and fatty alcohols in submarine hydrothermal environments

图6. 碱性热液喷口环境下依托天然pH梯度与铁镍硫化物矿物、经甲酸盐途径实现氢气还原二氧化碳生成有机分子的过程[53]

Figure 6. In an alkaline hydrothermal vent environment, the process of reducing carbon dioxide to organic molecules via hydrogen through the reduction of iron-nickel sulfide minerals and formate pathways relies on the natural pH gradient[53]

图7. (A)反应器示意图(其中嵌入反应过程的微观图, 显示界面处存在沉淀物); (B)所生成甲酸的1H NMR和13C NMR光谱[(a) 1H NMR和(b) 13C NMR中的单峰表明, 本体系中生成了甲酸; (c)使用同位素标记的13CO2时1H NMR与13C NMR之间的耦合在1H NMR中产生预期的双峰; (d)在海洋侧用氘代水(2H2O)代替普通水后2H NMR与13C NMR核之间的耦合; (e, f) H2替换为N2作为热液喷口驱动气体时未检测到甲酸盐[55]

Figure 7. (a) Schematic diagram of the reactor, with a microscopic view of the reaction process embedded, showing the presence of precipitates at the interface; (B) 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of the formic acid produced (The single peaks in the 1H NMR (a) and 13C NMR (b) spectra indicate that formic acid was formed in this system); (c) Expected doublet signal produced by the coupling between 1H and 13C nuclei in the 1H NMR spectrum when the isotopically labeled 13CO2 was used; (d) Observed coupling between 2H and 13C nuclei after replacing ordinary water with deuterated water 2H2O); (e, f) No formate was detected when N2 was used to substitute H2 as the hydrothermal‑vent driving gas [55]

图8. 高压对PCET反应机制的调控(1 bar=100 kPa)

Figure 8. Regulation of the PCET reaction mechanism by high pressure (1 bar=100 kPa)

图9. 依托早期地球热液环境本就存在的钴镍矿物与甲酸等简单物质, 在温和水热条件下合成组装形成液滴的长链羧酸的反应过程

Figure 9. Process of synthesizing long-chain carboxylic acids that can assemble into droplets using cobalt-nickel minerals and simple substances such as formic acid, which were already present in the early hydrothermal environment of Earth, under mild hydrothermal conditions

图10. 何道平等构建的一套以氢气为还原剂转化二氧化碳的原始代谢反应网络

Figure 10. A set of primitive metabolic reaction networks developed by He Daoping and colleagues that uses hydrogen as a reducing agent to directly convert carbon dioxide

图11. NiFe2O4/Fe2O3的(A)高分辨率透射电子显微镜(HRTEM)图像、(B)高角度环形暗场-扫描透射电子显微镜(HAADF- STEM)图像及(C) EDS映射

Figure 11. (A) HRTEM image, (B) HAADF-STEM image, and (C) EDS mapping of NiFe2O4/Fe2O3

图式4. Breslow对Formose反应提出的可能机制

Scheme 4. Mechanism of the Formose reaction proposed by Breslow.

图式5. 在碱性海底热液条件下生成甲酸和甲醛的路径

Scheme 5. Pathways for the formation of formic acid and formaldehyde under alkaline seafloor hydrothermal conditions

图式6. 由甲醛合成单糖的反应式

Scheme 6. Reaction equation for the synthesis of monosaccharides from formaldehyde

图12. Formose反应及分析工作流程概述[74]

Figure 12. Overview of the Formose reaction and analytical workflow[74] The central circle illustrates the formation of target monosaccharide products through the Breslow cycle. The surrounding ring represents various non-target products, with the colored regions highlighting the major side-reaction pathways: reduction (blue), dehydration (green), and oxidation (red).

图式7. 从氢氰酸出发合成嘌呤核苷酸的前体AICA

Scheme 7. Synthesis of AICA, a precursor of purine nucleotides, starting from hydrogen cyanide

图13. 岩石里的铁氧化物催化生成含有乙炔碎片(A)和氰基碎片(B)的质谱数据

Figure 13. Mass spectrometry data of iron oxides in rocks catalyzing the formation of acetylene fragments (A) and cyano fragments (B)

图14. 光介导、氢气存在条件下硫化亚铁催化大气中二氧化碳向甲醇的转化

Figure 14. Conversion of atmospheric carbon dioxide to methanol catalyzed by ferrous sulfide under light mediation and in the presence of hydrogen

图15. 碳酸氢钠在水热条件下分别生成甲酸盐(左)与长链烃(右)的两条竞争反应路径推测

Figure 15. Two proposed competing reaction pathways for sodium bicarbonate under hydrothermal conditions, leading to the formation of formate (left) and long-chain hydrocarbons (right)

图式8. 通过闪电和大气放电可以使氮与氧发生反应

Scheme 8. Lightening and atmospheric discharges can cause the reaction between dinitrogen and dioxygen

图16. (a) ${\text{NO}}_{\text{3}}^{－}$和${\text{NO}}_{\text{2}}^{－}$还原的典型反应途径; (b)对于一个基本的质子偶合电子转移步骤, pH值与质子和电子转移驱动力之间的关系; (c)在可逆氢电极电位(RHE)电位梯度上, 在恒定电位下, 两种竞争反应速率随pH值的变化关系[两种CPET途径的相对反应速率与pH值无关(黑色实线和虚线), 而两种SPET途径的相对反应速率则表现出明显的pH依赖性(绿色实线和虚线)]

Figure 16. (a) Typical reaction pathways for ${\text{NO}}_{\text{3}}^{－}$ and ${\text{NO}}_{\text{2}}^{－}$ reduction; (b) Relationship between pH and the driving force for proton and electron transfer for an elementary proton-coupled electron transfer step; (c) Rate of two competing reactions as a function of the pH at a constant potential on the RHE scale [The relative reaction rate of two CPET pathways is pH independent (solid and broken black lines), whereas the relative reaction rate of two SPET pathways shows a strong pH dependence (solid and broken green lines)]

图式9. 无酶条件下硫化铜矿物经由肼中间体实现亚硝酸盐与铵盐向氮气的转化

Scheme 9. Conversion of nitrites and ammonium salts into nitrogen gas by copper sulfide minerals via a hydrazine intermediate without enzymes

图式10. 经Bucherer-Bergs途径(Strecker 反应延伸)由α-酮酸、氰化物与氨源反应生成对应α-氨基酸

Scheme 10. Formation of corresponding α-amino acids from α-keto acids, cyanide and ammonia sources via the Bucherer-Bergs pathway (an extension of the Strecker reaction)

图式11. 合成甘氨酸(上)和丙氨酸(下)的反应式

Scheme 11. Reaction equations for synthetic glycine (top) and alanine (bottom)

图式12. 在甲酰胺介质中, 氰化氢(HCN)、水及光电子等作用下, 生成N-甲酰基氨基腈的益生元合成路径

Scheme 12. Prebiotic synthetic pathway for the formation of N-formylaminocarbonitrile in formamide medium, under the action of hydrogen cyanide (HCN), water, and photoelectrons

图式13. 由HCN分子合成腺嘌呤

Scheme 13. Synthesis of adenine from HCN molecules

图式14. 在氧化锰作为催化剂的条件下, 将甲酰胺在160 ℃下加热48 h以合成嘌呤和嘧啶核苷酸碱基的过程

Scheme 14. Process for synthesizing purine and pyrimidine nucleobases by heating formamide at 160 ℃ for 48 h with man- ganese oxide as catalyst

图17. 簇集体和自卷构象以及胶束的示意图[1]

Figure 17. Schematic diagrams of clusters, self-coiled conformations, and micelles[1]

图18. 碳氢分子A和B间的疏水亲脂作用示意图(圈表示水分子)[1]

Figure 18. Schematic illustration of the hydrophobic lipophilic interactions between hydrocarbon molecules A and B (the circles represent water molecules)[1]

图19. 周期性多层囊泡生长与分裂的示意图

Figure 19. Schematic diagram of cyclic multilamellar vesicle growth and division

图式15. 以5-甲氨甲基尿苷(mnm5U)和氨基酸修饰的氨基甲酰腺苷[(m6)aa6A, aa代表氨基酸]为核心的RNA-多肽合成完整循环[137]

Scheme 15. General RNA-peptide synthesis cycle based on 5-Methylaminomethyl uridine (mnm5U) and the amino acid-modified carbamoyl adenosine [(m6)aa6A. aa, amino acid][137]

图20. Szostak团队提出的从头合成最简单原始细胞的路径

Figure 20. Pathway proposed by Szostak's team for the de novo synthesis of the simplest protocells

图21. 生命过程循环性的示意图

Figure 21. Schematic diagram of the cyclicity of life processes

图22. 热液喷口系统陡峭pH、温度梯度环境中, 可维持足够质子梯度驱动ATP合成酶生成ATP的脂肪酸膜[150]

Figure 22. Fatty acid membranes maintaining adequate proton gradients to support ATP synthesis by ATP synthase under steep pH and temperature gradients of hydrothermal vent systems[150]

图23. 在反应皿中的BZ反应体系随时间变化的照片[152]

Figure 23. Photographs of the BZ reaction system in a reaction vessel over time[152]

图24. 重力场中的Rayleigh-Bénard对流原胞[160]

Figure 24. Rayleigh-Bénard convection cells in a gravitational field[160]

图25. ter Harmsel等报道的有机振荡反应[161]

Figure 25. Organic oscillation reactions reported by ter Harmsel et al.[161]

图26. 依托氧化剂与还原剂构筑复制-破坏循环实现非平衡条件下复杂稳定复制子竞争优势的实验体系[168]

Figure 26. Experimental system for replication-degradation cycles enabling competitive dominance of complex stable replicators under nonequilibrium[168]

图27. 复制子与其改造形成的环境相互作用、环境反向驱动复制子群体进化的协同演化机制

Figure 27. Coevolutionary mechanism of replicator-environ- ment interactions with environmental feedback on replicator population evolution

图28. 意味着非随机选择存在的高复制数与高复杂度特征

Figure 28. Features of high replication numbers and high complexity indicative of the existence of non-random selection (A) Schematic representation of the formation of a combinatorial object space, which is constrained by building blocks and physical constraints; (B) Observed copy number distributions of objects under different assembly indices, with and without selection; (C) Schematic diagram of physical pathways for object construction, where undirected pathways and directed (selected) pathways lead to low and high observed copy numbers of objects, respectively.

图29. 组装空间的概念

Figure 29. Concept of assembly space (A) Assembly observations of the three objects (P1, P2, and P3), which share a minimal construction process referred to as their “joint assembly space”; (B) Expanded schematic representation of the assembly universe, possible assemblies, contingent assemblies, and observed assemblies. The assembly universe is non-dynamic and is organized along assembly steps as a temporal axis

图30. 组装理论与计算复杂度理论的对比[172]

Figure 30. A comparison of assembly theory and computational complexity theory[172]

图31. 在远古海底碱性热液喷口中细菌和古菌的分化[177]

Figure 31. Diversification of bacteria and archaea in ancient alkaline hydrothermal vents on the seafloor[177]

图32. 可形成脂质体、胶束与双分子层的磷脂衍生物分子结构示意图

Figure 32. Schematic diagram of the molecular structure of phospholipid derivatives that can form liposomes, micelles and bilayers

图33. (a)细胞和真核生物的双层细胞膜结构及(b)古菌的四醚单层细胞膜结构

Figure 33. (a) Bilayer cell membrane structures of bacteria and eukaryotes and (b) tetraether monolayer cell membrane structure of archaea.

图34. 原始细胞形成的可能路径

Figure 34. Possible pathways for protocell formation Hollow arrows indicate the traditionally recognized pathways, while solid arrows represent the novel pathways proposed by Black et al.

图35. 蒋锡夔先生于2004年3月12日的题字

Figure 35. Inscription by Prof. Xi-Kui Jiang on March 12, 2004

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通往生命起源的化学之路

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