无金属电化学C—H键活化构建C—N/C—O键的研究进展

doi:10.6023/cjoc202508020

摘要/Abstract

电化学C—H键活化以其优异的原子经济性、丰富的反应位点、环境友好性以及无需底物预官能团化等优势备受关注. C—N/C—O键广泛存在于许多天然产物和药物分子中, 是生命体系中重要的结构, 因此其高效构建方法的研究具有重要意义. 近年来, 随着绿色化学理念的深入, 无金属参与的电化学C—H键活化构建C—N/C—O键因其避免金属残留、成本低廉且环境友好等优势, 正日益成为研究热点. 该领域已开发出多种通过电化学C—H键活化构建C—N/C—O键策略. 系统总结了近五年来无金属电化学C—H键活化构建C—N/C—O键的重要进展, 涵盖直接C—N/C—O键的构建及非金属介导的C—N/C—O键的构建, 并重点阐述了相关反应机理.

关键词: 电化学, C—H键活化, 绿色化学, 无金属, 构建C—N/C—O键

Electrochemical C—H bond activation has garnered significant attention due to its superior atom economy, abundant reaction sites, environmental friendliness, and the absence of substrate pre-functionalization requirements. C—N/C—O bonds, which are widely present in numerous natural products and pharmaceutical molecules, serve as crucial structural motifs in biological systems, making the development of efficient methodologies for their construction highly consequential. In recent years, with the growing emphasis on green chemistry principles, metal-free electrochemical C—H bond activation for C—N/C—O bond formation has emerged as a prominent research focus, owing to its advantages in avoiding metal residues, cost-effectiveness, and environmental compatibility. This field has witnessed the development of diverse strategies for constructing C—N/C—O bonds via electrochemical C—H activation. The key advancements in metal-free electrochemical C—H activation for C—N/C—O bond formation over the past five years are systematically reviewed, encompassing both direct C—N/C—O bond construction and non-metal-mediated approaches, with particular emphasis on elucidating the under- lying reaction mechanisms.

Key words: electrochemistry, C—H bond activation, green chemistry, metal-free, construction of C—N/C—O bonds

引用此文

罗辉, 王文权, 贺瑜, 王富强, 杨金会. 无金属电化学C—H键活化构建C—N/C—O键的研究进展[J]. 有机化学, 2026, 46(3): 697-724.

Hui Luo, Wenquan Wang, Yu He, Fuqiang Wang, Jinhui Yang. Research Progress in Metal-Free Electrochemical C—H Bond Activation for the Construction of C—N/C—O Bonds[J]. Chinese Journal of Organic Chemistry, 2026, 46(3): 697-724.

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图/表 31

Item compared	Transition metal-catalyzed C—H functionalization	Metal-free electrochemical C—H functionalization
Reaction mechanism	Using transition metals as catalysts, through elementary steps such as ligand exchange, oxidative addition, migration insertion, and reductive elimination, the activation and functionalization of C—H bonds are achieved.	Using electrons as clean oxidants or reductants, through electron transfer at the electrode surface, the substrate is transformed into active intermediates, thereby achieving the cleavage and functionalization of C—H bonds.
Reactive driving force	Chemical oxidants (such as Ag salts, Cu salts, peroxides, etc.) or reductants provide or consume electrons to complete the catalytic cycle.	Electric energy. By applying an external voltage or current, the redox potential of the reaction can be precisely controlled.
major advantage	(1) The method is mature and has a wide range of applications; (2) It offers strong selectivity and can be precisely controlled through ligand engineering; (3) The reaction conditions are relatively mild and facilitate large-scale production.	(1) Green and sustainable, reducing the use of metals and oxidants; (2) Economical in steps, without the need for pre-functionalization steps; (3) Unique reactivity, facilitating the generation of highly reactive free radical species; (4) High safety, capable of avoiding some dangerous chemical oxidants.
Main challenges and limitations	(1) The cost of metals is high and they may be toxic; (2) Metal residues affect the purity of the products, especially in the pharmaceutical industry; (3) They rely on chemical reagents for oxidation, generating chemical waste.	(1) Selective control (especially regional and stereoscopic selectivity) is a major challenge; (2) Reaction scaling is difficult due to limitations imposed by electrode area and mass transfer efficiency; (3) Special equipment (electrolytic cells, power supplies) is required; (4) Requirements exist for the conductivity of the substrate and solvent.
Catalyst and cost	(1) Expensive transition metal catalysts (such as Pd, Rh, Ir) are required; (2) It may involve the design and synthesis of complex ligands; (3) There is a problem of metal residue, which is not friendly to drug synthesis.	(1) No need for transition metal catalysts, and the cost is relatively low; (2) It may use inexpensive media (such as salts, acids, and bases) to facilitate conductivity; (3) No metal residues, especially suitable for the fields of medicine and materials.
Reaction selecti- vity	Regional selectivity: Usually precisely controlled through the spatial/electronic effects of directing groups or ligands, as well as catalysts. Stereoselectivity: High enantioselectivity can be achie- ved through chiral ligands.	Regional selectivity: It can be regulated by substrate structure (such as inherent electronic effects at the site), electrode potential, and medium, but precise activation of the distal C—H bond poses greater challenges. Stereoselectivity: It is relatively difficult to control and is currently a research difficulty.
Sustainability and “Green Chemis- try”	Using stoichiometric oxidants results in poorer atom economy. (1) Toxic or expensive metals may be used; (2) The process has high economic efficiency, but the environmental footprint is relatively large.	The atomic economy is high, and electrons act as “clean reagents”. (1) It is more in line with the principles of green chemistry (reducing waste and using renewable sources); (2) It can be combined with renewable energy sources (solar energy, wind energy).

Item compared	Transition metal-catalyzed C—H functionalization	Metal-free electrochemical C—H functionalization
Reaction mechanism	Using transition metals as catalysts, through elementary steps such as ligand exchange, oxidative addition, migration insertion, and reductive elimination, the activation and functionalization of C—H bonds are achieved.	Using electrons as clean oxidants or reductants, through electron transfer at the electrode surface, the substrate is transformed into active intermediates, thereby achieving the cleavage and functionalization of C—H bonds.
Reactive driving force	Chemical oxidants (such as Ag salts, Cu salts, peroxides, etc.) or reductants provide or consume electrons to complete the catalytic cycle.	Electric energy. By applying an external voltage or current, the redox potential of the reaction can be precisely controlled.
major advantage	(1) The method is mature and has a wide range of applications; (2) It offers strong selectivity and can be precisely controlled through ligand engineering; (3) The reaction conditions are relatively mild and facilitate large-scale production.	(1) Green and sustainable, reducing the use of metals and oxidants; (2) Economical in steps, without the need for pre-functionalization steps; (3) Unique reactivity, facilitating the generation of highly reactive free radical species; (4) High safety, capable of avoiding some dangerous chemical oxidants.
Main challenges and limitations	(1) The cost of metals is high and they may be toxic; (2) Metal residues affect the purity of the products, especially in the pharmaceutical industry; (3) They rely on chemical reagents for oxidation, generating chemical waste.	(1) Selective control (especially regional and stereoscopic selectivity) is a major challenge; (2) Reaction scaling is difficult due to limitations imposed by electrode area and mass transfer efficiency; (3) Special equipment (electrolytic cells, power supplies) is required; (4) Requirements exist for the conductivity of the substrate and solvent.
Catalyst and cost	(1) Expensive transition metal catalysts (such as Pd, Rh, Ir) are required; (2) It may involve the design and synthesis of complex ligands; (3) There is a problem of metal residue, which is not friendly to drug synthesis.	(1) No need for transition metal catalysts, and the cost is relatively low; (2) It may use inexpensive media (such as salts, acids, and bases) to facilitate conductivity; (3) No metal residues, especially suitable for the fields of medicine and materials.
Reaction selecti- vity	Regional selectivity: Usually precisely controlled through the spatial/electronic effects of directing groups or ligands, as well as catalysts. Stereoselectivity: High enantioselectivity can be achie- ved through chiral ligands.	Regional selectivity: It can be regulated by substrate structure (such as inherent electronic effects at the site), electrode potential, and medium, but precise activation of the distal C—H bond poses greater challenges. Stereoselectivity: It is relatively difficult to control and is currently a research difficulty.
Sustainability and “Green Chemis- try”	Using stoichiometric oxidants results in poorer atom economy. (1) Toxic or expensive metals may be used; (2) The process has high economic efficiency, but the environmental footprint is relatively large.	The atomic economy is high, and electrons act as “clean reagents”. (1) It is more in line with the principles of green chemistry (reducing waste and using renewable sources); (2) It can be combined with renewable energy sources (solar energy, wind energy).

表1. 过渡金属催化与无金属电化学C—H官能化的比较

Table 1. Comparison of transition metal-catalyzed and metal-free electrochemical C—H functionalization

表1. 过渡金属催化与无金属电化学C—H官能化的比较

Table 1. Comparison of transition metal-catalyzed and metal-free electrochemical C—H functionalization

图式1. 直接和间接电化学反应

Scheme 1. Direct and indirect electrochemical reactions

图式2. 电化学C(sp3)—H键直接异硫氰基化

Scheme 2. Electrochemical direct isothiocyanation of C(sp3)—H bonds

图式3. 电化学C(sp3)—H键直接胺化

Scheme 3. Electrochemical direct amination of C(sp3)—H bonds

图式4. 无金属电化学催化芳烃邻位C—H键的双胺化

Scheme 4. Metal-free electrochemical catalytic diamination of ortho-C—H bonds in arenes

图式5. 氰类化合物作为亲核试剂的电化学Ritter反应

Scheme 5. Electrochemical Ritter reaction with nitrile compounds as nucleophiles

图式6. 酰胺类化合物作为亲核试剂的电化学Ritter反应

Scheme 6. Electrochemical Ritter reaction of amide compounds as nucleophiles

图式7. 醛腙电化学胺化反应

Scheme 7. Electrochemical amination reaction of aldehyde hydrazones

图式8. 电化学C—H/N—H交叉偶联反应

Scheme 8. Electrochemical C—H/N—H cross-coupling reaction

图式9. 电化学分子内C(sp3)—H/N—H环化策略

Scheme 9. Electrochemical intramolecular C(sp3)—H/N—H cyclization strategy

图式10. 偶氮苯的苄位C(sp3)—H直接活化环化

Scheme 10. Direct activation and ring formation of the benzyl C(sp3)—H group of azobenzene

图式11. 电化学HAT过程活化C—H

Scheme 11. Activation of C—H via the HAT process

图式12. 杂原子自由基引发的HAT活化C(sp3)—H键

Scheme 12. C(sp3)—H bond activation via HAT initiated by heteroatom radicals

图式13. 电化学烯丙位C(sp3)—H异硫氰基化反应

Scheme 13. Electrochemical allylic C(sp3)—H isothiocyanation reaction

图式14. DDQ介导的电化学C—H键胺化

Scheme 14. Electrochemical C—H bond amination mediated by DDQ

图式15. 硫或碘介导的电化学C—H键胺化

Scheme 15. Sulfur or iodine-mediated electrochemical C—H bond amination

图式16. 胺介导的电化学C—H键胺化

Scheme 16. Amide-mediated electrochemical C—H bond amination

图式17. N-芳酰胺的对位选择性羟基化

Scheme 17. ortho-Selective hydroxylation of N-furanamide

图式18. 电化学苄位C(sp3)—H键羟基化

Scheme 18. Electrochemical benzyl C(sp3)—H bond hydroxylation

图式19. 电化学C—H键羰基化

Scheme 19. Electrochemical C—H bond carbonylation

图式20. 电化学苄位C(sp3)—H键氧化

Scheme 20. Electrochemical oxidation of benzylic C(sp3)—H bonds

图式21. 电化学连续流构建C—O键

Scheme 21. Electrochemical continuous flow for the formation of C—O bonds

图式22. 电化学构建烷氧键

Scheme 22. Electrochemical formation of alkoxy bonds

图式23. 自组装诱导的C—H键酰氧基化

Scheme 23. C—H bond acylation induced by self-assembly

图式24. 电化学活化C—H键构建烷氧键

Scheme 24. Electrochemical activation of C—H bonds to form alkoxyl bonds

图式25. 电化学C—H键构建三氟甲氧基和烷氧基

Scheme 25. Electrochemical C—H bond formation of trifluoromethoxy and alkoxyl groups

图式26. 电化学极性翻构建烷氧键

Scheme 26. Electrochemical polarity reversal formation of alkoxy bonds

图式27. 通过极性反转策略实现电化学C—H键烷氧化和磺化

Scheme 27. Electrochemical C—H alkoxylation and sulfonation are achieved via a polarity inversion strategy

图式28. 烷基芳烃及三氟乙酰胺中邻C—H键的直接酯化

Scheme 28. Direct esterification of ortho C—H bonds in alkyl aromatics and trifluoroacetic anhydride

图式29. 奎宁环啶和氨基氧介导的电化学C—H键羰基化

Scheme 29. Quinuclidine and amino oxygen-mediated electrochemical C—H bond carbonylation

图式30. TMSN3和NHPI介导的电化学C—H键氧化

Scheme 30. Electrochemical oxidation of C—H bonds mediated by TMSN3 and NHPI

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