乙二醇选择性催化氧化合成乙醇酸的研究进展

doi:10.6023/cjoc202601006

摘要/Abstract

乙二醇(EG)作为聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯(PET)的关键裂解产物, 来源广泛且产量巨大, 但其自身附加值较低. 在当前塑料污染加剧与碳资源浪费的双重挑战下, 将PET衍生的乙二醇高效定向转化为高附加值化学品乙醇酸(GA), 已成为推动塑料“化学升级再造”与构建循环经济体系的重要路径. 然而, 传统乙醇酸合成工艺普遍存在反应条件苛刻、流程复杂、环境负荷高及原子经济性低等问题, 难以满足绿色化工发展的迫切需求, 亟需发展高效、可持续的新型催化策略. 此文系统综述了近年热催化、电催化、光催化及酶催化四种主流策略在乙二醇选择性氧化合成乙醇酸领域的研究进展; 重点梳理了各类催化体系中核心催化剂的设计思路及调控策略、关键性能指标及工艺优化方向, 并对不同的催化策略进行了对比分析, 深入剖析了各技术路线的独特优势与当前面临的核心挑战. 在此基础上, 结合当前研究瓶颈, 对未来发展趋势进行了展望, 提出突破单一催化模式的局限, 构建热-电、光-电等多场协同催化体系, 依托人工智能技术辅助催化剂的理性设计与反应路径的精准预测, 聚焦单金属催化剂的活性位点调控及金属有机催化剂的配体修饰与结构优化, 增强其与反应体系的适配性与稳定性. 通过多能量输入耦合与反应路径的精准调控, 有望实现乙二醇转化率、乙醇酸选择性与工艺经济性的协同突破.

关键词: 乙二醇, 乙醇酸, 热催化, 电催化, 光催化, 酶催化

Ethylene glycol (EG), as a key pyrolysis product of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), has abundant sources and enormous output, yet its inherent added value is relatively low. Against the dual challenges of escalating plastic pollution and carbon resource waste, the efficient and selective conversion of PET-derived EG into glycolic acid (GA), a high-value-added chemical, has emerged as a critical pathway to advance the chemical upcycling of plastics and establish a circular economy system. However, traditional GA synthesis processes are generally plagued by harsh reaction conditions, complex procedures, high environmental burden and low atom economy, which fail to meet the urgent demands of green chemical industry development, thus creating an imperative need for efficient and sustainable novel catalytic strategies. This paper systematically reviews the recent research progress in the selective oxidation of EG to GA via four mainstream catalytic strategies: thermocatalysis, electrocatalysis, photocatalysis and enzymatic catalysis. It focuses on summarizing the design concepts and regulation strategies of core catalysts, key performance indicators and process optimization directions in various catalytic systems, conducts a comparative analysis of different catalytic strategies, and deeply dissects the unique advantages and core challenges faced by each technical route. On this basis, combined with the current research bottlenecks, the future development trends are prospected: breaking through the limitations of single catalytic mode to construct multi-field synergistic catalytic systems such as thermo-electro and photo-electro systems, leveraging artificial intelligence technology to assist the rational design of catalysts and precise prediction of reaction paths, focusing on the active site regulation of single-metal catalysts and the ligand modification and structure optimization of metal-organic catalysts, so as to enhance their compatibility and stability with the reaction system.

Key words: ethylene glycol, glycolic acid, thermocatalysis, electrocatalysis, photocatalysis, enzymatic catalysis

引用此文

吴蕊, 武治权, 张娟, 高文超, 王英雄, 常宏宏. 乙二醇选择性催化氧化合成乙醇酸的研究进展[J]. 有机化学, 2026, 46(8): 2969-2987.

Rui Wu, Zhiquan Wu, Juan Zhang, Wenchao Gao, Yingxiong Wang, Honghong Chang. Research Progress in the Selective Catalytic Oxidation of Ethylene Glycol to Glycolic Acid[J]. Chinese Journal of Organic Chemistry, 2026, 46(8): 2969-2987.

导出引用 EndNote|Reference Manager|ProCite|BibTeX|RefWorks

分享此文

图/表 19

参考文献 79

[1]	Wong, M. K.; Lock, S. S. M.; Chan, Y. H.; Yeoh, S. J.; Tan, I. S. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 468, 143699.
[2]	Zhang, Y. W.; Chen, Y. L.; Fang, X. L.; Yuan, Y. Z.; Zhu, H. P. Chin. J. Org. Chem. 2017, 37, 2275 (in Chinese).
	(张亦伟, 陈艺林, 方霄龙, 袁友珠, 朱红平, 有机化学, 2017, 37, 2275.)
[3]	Sun, Y. L.; Chai, G. L. ChemistrySelect 2022, 7, e2021036422.
[4]	Ye, R. P.; Huang, Y. Y.; Chen, C. C.; Yao, Y. G.; Fan, M. H.; Zhou, Z. F. Chem. Commun. 2023, 59, 2711.
[5]	Yue, H. R.; Zhao, Y. J.; Ma, X. B.; Gong, J. L. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41, 4218.
[6]	Fang, X. L.; Duan, N.; Zhang, M.; Li, B. Chin. J. Org. Chem. 2020, 40, 2692 (in Chinese).
	(方霄龙, 段宁, 章敏, 李斌, 有机化学, 2020, 40, 2692.)
[7]	Zhang, M. H.; Yu, Y. K.; Yan, B. H.; Song, X. J.; Liu, Y.; Feng, Y. X.; Wu, W. X.; Chen, B. L.; Han, B. X.; Mei, Q. Q. Appl. Catal. B 2024, 352, 124055.
[8]	Wu, X. Y.; Galkin, M. V.; Stern, T.; Sun, Z. H.; Barta, K. Nat. Commun. 2022, 13, 3376.
[9]	Guo, C.-L.; Peng, Z. Q.; Jiang, B. X.; Wu, Z. K.; Wang, D. L.; Wang, Q. Y.; Zheng, J. Y.; Lim, K. H.; Shi, S. B.; Yang, X.; Liu, P. W.; Wang, W. J. CIESC J. 2025, 76, 532 (in Chinese).
	(郭琛龙, 彭正奇, 姜冰雪, 吴正凯, 王德良, 王青月, 郑杰元, Lim, Khak Ho, 史胜斌, 杨轩, 刘平伟, 王文俊, 化工学报, 2025, 76, 532.)
[10]	Carniel, A.; dos Santos, N. F.; Buarque, F. S.; Resende, J. V. M.; Ribeiro, B. D.; Marrucho, I. M.; Zarur, C. M. A.; Castro, A. M. Green Chem. 2024, 26, 5708.
[11]	Jiang, H. Y.; Zhou, J. H.; Zhou, Q.; Qin, L.; Zhao, D. H.; Liu, H.; Yang, M. W.; Zhang, Y. C. Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 489, 151256.
[12]	Wang, H.; Jusys, Z.; Behm, R. J. Electrochim. Acta 2009, 54, 6484.
[13]	Li, J. M.; Yang, R. F.; Xu, S. G.; Zhou, C. Q.; Xiao, Y.; Hu, C. W.; Tsang, D. C. W. Appl. Catal. B 2022, 317, 121785.
[14]	Bello, Y. D.; Farina, A. P.; Souza, M. A.; Cecchin, D. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2020, 106, 110283.
[15]	Zhou, X.; Zha, M.; Cao, J.; Yan, H.; Feng, X.; Chen, D.; Yang, C. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2021, 9, 10948.
[16]	Cheng, J.-Y.; Li, X. M.; Liu, J.; Gao, C.; Liu, L. M. Chin. J. Biotech. 2025, 41, 1959 (in Chinese).
	(程金宇, 李晓敏, 刘佳, 高聪, 刘立明, 生物工程学报, 2025, 41, 1959.)
[17]	Jiang, T.; Liu, H. W. Nat. Gas Chem. Ind. 2022, 47, 15 (in Chinese).
	(江甜, 刘华伟, 天然气化工, 2022, 47, 15.)
[18]	Li, T. Z.; Tan, Z. J.; Tang, Z. J.; Liu, P.; Liu, H. F.; Zhu, L. L.; Ma, Y. H. Green Chem. 2022, 24, 5064.
[19]	Cao, X.; Zhang, K.; Wang, Y.; He, P. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2023, 62, 17671.
[20]	Zhan, Y. L.; Hou, W. R.; Li, G.; Shen, Y. B.; Zhang, Y. H.; Tang, Y. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2019, 7, 17559.
[21]	Waiba, S.; Maiti, M.; Maji, B. ACS Catal. 2022, 12, 3995.
[22]	Sahoo, S. T.; Mohanty, A.; Sharma, R.; Daw, P. Dalton Trans. 2023, 52, 15343.
[23]	Yan, H.; Yao, S.; Wang, J. Y.; Zhao, S. M.; Sun, Y. H.; Liu, M. Y.; Zhou, X.; Zhang, G. Y.; Jin, X.; Feng, X.; Liu, Y. B.; Chen, X. B.; Chen, D.; Yang, C. H. Appl. Catal. B 2021, 284, 119803.
[24]	Yan, H.; Zhao, M. Y.; Feng, X.; Zhao, S. M.; Zhou, X.; Li, S. F.; Zha, M. H.; Meng, F. Y.; Chen, X. B.; Liu, Y. B.; Chen, D.; Yan, N.; Yang, C. H. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2022, 61, e202116059.
[25]	Huang, Z. J.; Li, F. B.; Chen, B. F.; Xue, F.; Yuan, Y.; Chen, G. C.; Yuan, G. Q. Green Chem. 2011, 13, 3414.
[26]	Du, F.; You, Z. C.; Meng, K. X.; Qu, X. L.; Zhang, D. P.; Zhang, W. X.; Liu, M. Y.; Shen, Y. F.; Deng, W. A.; Jin, X. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2021, 9, 14416.
[27]	Oberhauser, W.; Evangelisti, C.; Nguyen, X. T.; Filippi, J.; Poggini, L.; Capozzoli, L.; Manca, G.; Kitching, E. A.; Slater, T. J. A.; Danaie, M. Inorg. Chem. 2024, 63, 22912.
[28]	Shi, H. H.; Yin, X. G.; Subramaniam, B.; Chaudhari, R. V. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2019, 58, 18561.
[29]	Xu, Y. M.; Liu, W. Z.; Xu, B.; Wang, K.; Yang, J. C.; Si, Y. Q.; Zhao, X. B.; Zhang, T. T.; Zhang, Z.; Qiao, X. Y.; Lu, T. L. React. Chem. Eng. 2024, 9, 3122.
[30]	Liu, X. Y.; Zou, M.; Yu, Y. H.; Hai, Y. R.; Huang, J. Y.; Fan, Y. C.; Zhang, Y. L.; Weng, Y. J.; Liao, Y. H. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2025, 64, 10453.
[31]	Biella, S.; Castiglioni, G. L.; Fumagalli, C.; Prati, L.; Rossi, M. Catal. Today 2002, 72, 43.
[32]	Berndt, H.; Pitsch, I.; Evert, S.; Struve, K.; Pohl, M. M.; Radnik, J.; Martin, A. Appl. Catal. A 2003, 244, 169.
[33]	Berndt, H.; Martin, A.; Pitsch, I.; Prüsse, U.; Vorlop, K. D. Catal. Today 2004, 91-92, 191.
[34]	Tschirner, S.; Weingart, E.; Teevs, L.; Prube, U. Reactions 2022, 3, 47.
[35]	Chen, Q. H.; Yan, H.; Zhao, K.; Wang, S.; Zhang, D. R.; Li, Y. Q.; Fan, R.; Li, J.; Chen, X. B.; Zhou, X.; Liu, Y. B.; Feng, X.; Chen, D.; Yang, C. H. Nat. Commun. 2024, 15, 10732.
[36]	Rosmini, C.; Urrea, M. P.; Tusini, E.; Indris, S.; Kovacheva, D.; Karashanova, D.; Kolev, H.; Zimina, A.; Grunwaldt, J. D.; Rønning, M.; Dimitrov, M.; Popova, M. Appl. Catal. B 2024, 350, 123904.
[37]	van Haasterecht, T.; van Deelen, T. W.; de Jong, K. P.; Bitter, J. H. Catal. Sci. Technol. 2014, 4, 2353.
[38]	Wang, Y. X.; Liu, K. S.; Liu, F. L.; Liu, C. X.; Shi, R.; Chen, Y. Green Chem. 2023, 25, 5872.
[39]	Wei, X. W.; Shen, Z. K.; Wei, R. R.; Zhang, X. Y.; Zhu, Z. Y.; Wang, Y. L.; Wang, L.; Wang, S.; Yin, S. L. Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 498, 155104.
[40]	Wang, Z. Q.; Wang, Y. N.; Chen, J. Y.; Yu, H. J.; Xu, Y.; Deng, K.; Wang, H. J.; Wang, L. J. Mater. Chem. A 2025, 13, 20439.
[41]	Sun, L. Z.; Lv, H.; Xiao, J.; Liu, B. Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2402767.
[42]	Kang, S. L.; Yuan, W. F.; Guo, X. Y.; Zhang, Y.; Shang, J.; Yang, P. N.; Ma, Y. X.; Nicolosi, V.; Cai, L. J.; Qiu, B. C. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2025, 64, e202504993.
[43]	Guo, M.; Feng, B. C.; Ding, H. J.; Yin, P. J.; Wang, L. X.; Jin, Y. Res. Chem. Intermed. 2025, 51, 2669.
[44]	Liu, K. S.; Gao, X. T.; Liu, C. X.; Shi, R.; Tse, E. C. M.; Liu, F. L.; Chen, Y. Adv. Energy Mater. 2024, 14, 2304065.
[45]	Jin, X. Y.; Chen, X. Y.; Chen, C. T.; Xiao, X.; Chen, L.; Wang, Z. P.; Sun, B. J.; Sun, D. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2025, 688, 403.
[46]	Hu, T. J.; Wang, F. Y.; Wang, Q.; Zhang, L. M.; Wang, Y. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2025, 101, 779.
[47]	Wang, Y. X.; Liu, F. L.; Chen, J.; Tse, E. C. M.; Shi, R.; Chen, Y. Nat. Commun. 2025, 16, 4440.
[48]	Shi, K.; Si, D.; Teng, X.; Chen, L. S.; Shi, J. L. Nat. Commun. 2024, 15, 2899.
[49]	Jiang, X. L.; Wang, P. L.; Zhang, Y. G.; Zhao, L.; Yang, Y. T.; Liu, Y. Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 502, 157962.
[50]	Liu, F. L.; Gao, X. T.; Shi, R.; Guo, Z. X.; Tse, Edmund C., M.; Chen, Y. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023, 62, e202300094.
[51]	Guan, L. H.; Huang, Z.; Zhu, T.; Wang, Z. Y.; Huang, W. H.; Chang, C. C.; Yeh, M. H.; Osella, S.; Zhang, N.; Liu, T. X. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 35, 2500254.
[52]	Hu, X.; Liao, L.; Yang, L. M.; Xia, B. Y.; You, B. Green Chem. 2025, 27, 2493.
[53]	Li, Z. J.; Wang, S.; Yin, Y. J.; Qin, R.; Wei, C. Y.; Luo, H. X.; Mu, T. C. Chem. Asian J. 2025, 20, e202401843.
[54]	He, C. H.; Yan, Y. F.; Fu, Y.; Ma, C. Q.; Xia, J.; Han, S. M.; Zhang, H. F.; Ma, X.; Lin, G.; Feng, F. K.; Meng, X. M.; Cao, W. B.; Zhu, L. J.; Li, Z. H.; Lu, Q. P. Adv. Mater. 2025, 37, 2418959.
[55]	Lin, Y.; Chen, Y.; Ren, H.; Sun, Y. Y.; Chen, J. H.; Wu, M. B.; Li, Z. T. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2404594.
[56]	Xi, N.; Zang, Y. M.; Sun, X. W.; Yu, J. Y.; Johnsson, M.; Dai, Y.; Sang, Y. H.; Liu, H.; Yu, X. W. Adv. Energy. Mater. 2023, 13, 2301572.
[57]	Yue, S.; Zhao, Z. Y.; Liu, Y. X.; Yang, M. X.; Zhang, T.; Li, F.; Liu, K. W.; Wang, P. F.; Zhan, S. H. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 35, 09766.
[58]	Anh, Nguyen. K.; Trần, Phú. T.; Daiyan, R.; Minh, Chau. Ta. X.; Amal, R.; Tricoli, A. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2024, 63, e202401746.
[59]	Ashraf, M.; Ullah, N.; Khan, I.; Tremel, W.; Ahmad, S.; Tahir, M. N. Chem. Rev. 2023, 123, 4443.
[60]	Li, M.; Zhang, S. ACS Catal. 2024, 14, 6717.
[61]	Li, M.; Zhang, S. ACS Catal. 2024, 14, 2949.
[62]	Han, M.; Zhu, S. J.; Xia, C. L.; Yang, B. Appl. Catal. B 2022, 316, 121662.
[63]	Ya, Z. Y.; Tang, L.; Xu, D.; Wang, H.; Zhang, S. B. AIChE J. 2025, 71, e18740.
[64]	Wang, Z. S.; Wang, Y. Q.; Xiao, G.; Tang, Z. Q.; Wang, S. J.; Jin, Y.; Su, H. J. AIChE J. 2024, 70, e18686.
[65]	Wang, Z. S.; Wang, Y. Q.; Xiao, G.; Jin, Y.; Su, H. J. Green Chem. 2025, 27, 3542.
[66]	Mischko, W.; Hirte, M.; Roehrer, S.; Engelhardt, H.; Mehlmer, N.; Minceva, M.; Bruck, T. Green Chem. 2018, 20, 2637.
[67]	Choi, K. R.; Jang, W. D.; Yang, D.; Cho, J. S.; Park, D.; Lee, S. Y. Trends Biotechnol. 2019, 37, 817.
[68]	Choi, S. Y.; Park, S. J.; Kim, W. J.; Yang, J. E.; Lee, H.; Shin, J.; Lee, S. Y. Nat. Biotechnol. 2016, 34, 435.
[69]	Yu, Q.; Hua, X.; Zhou, X.; Xu, B.; Wang, H.; Xu, Y. Green Chem. 2022, 24, 5142.
[70]	Yu, Q.; Liu, X.; Lv, Y.; Zhou, X.; Xu, B.; Wang, H.; Xu, Y. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 452, 138994.
[71]	Santos, I. M. T. S.; De, Souza. E. F. Jr.; Brenes, R. G. R.; Grieco, M. A. B.; Ramirez, N. I. B.; Pereira, N. Jr. Fermentation 2024, 10, 320.
[72]	Gong, Y.; Yan, W.; Liu, F.; Ding, M.; Yuan, Y. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2025, 13, 115326.
[73]	Gao, X. X; Ma, Z. F.; Yang, L. M.; Ma, J. Q. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2014, 174, 1572.
[74]	Hua, X.; Du, G.; Xu, Y. Bioresour. Technol. 2019, 283, 326.
[75]	Koivistoinen, O. M.; Kuivanen, J.; Barth, D.; Turkia, H.; Pitkanen, J. P.; Penttila, M.; Richard, P. M. Cell. Fact. 2013, 12, 82.
[76]	Hua, X.; Zhou, X.; Xu, Y. Bioprocess. Biosyst. Eng. 2018, 41, 1555.
[77]	Hua, X.; Zhou, X.; Xu, Y. Fuel 2021, 285, 119134.
[78]	Chen, J.; Li, J.; Wei, Z. D. Chin. J. Catal. 2025, 73, 79.
[79]	Zhou, X.; Li, Z.Y.; Feng, X.; Yan, H.; Chen, D.; Yang, C. D. AIChE J. 2023, 69, e18083.

Catalytic system	Catalyst	Alkaline condition	Reaction condition	EG conversion/%	GA selectivity/%	Ref.
Homogeneous	[Cp*Ir(bpyO)]OH^－	Yes	100.0 ℃, 12.0 h	100.0	—	[20]
	[HN(C₂H₄PPh₂)₂]Mn(CO)₂Br	Yes	140.0 ℃, 12.0 h	100.0	96.0	[21]
	NNN-Ru	Yes	100.0 ℃, 2.0 h	100.0	94.0	[22]
Heterogeneous	PtMn/MCM-41 (In-70)	No	60.0 ℃, 8.0 h	92.1	93.8	[23]
	Pt₁/HAP	Yes	50.0 ℃, 16.0 h	79.1	98.3	[24]
	Pt/CS	Yes	70.0 ℃, 2.0 h	87.3	93.0	[25]
	Pt/NaY	No	70.0 ℃, 2.0 h	89.6	91.3	[26]
	Pt^B@Cᵏ	Yes	140.0 ℃, 3.0 h	77.4	72.6	[27]
	Pt-Fe/CeO₂	Yes	70.0 ℃, 4.0 h	100.0	62.0	[28]
	Pt/Sn-Beta	No	70.0 ℃, 2.0 h	90.0	81.0	[29]
	Commercial Pt/C	No	30.0 ℃, 0.5 h	60.0	>90.0	[30]
	Au/C	Yes	70.0 ℃, 1.0 h	—	98.0	[31]
	2.78Au/Al₂O₃I	Yes	70.0 ℃	—	>95.0	[32]
	2.6Au/Al₂O₃(D)	Yes	76.0 ℃	—	>95.0	[33]
	AuPt/CeO₂	Yes	70.0 ℃	≥90.0	90.0	[34]
	Au/NiO	Yes	130.0 ℃, 3.0 h	≈100.0	87.6	[35]
	Ni₃Sn/CeZrO₂	Yes	270.0 ℃, 2.0 h	68.0	—	[36]
	Cu/CNF	Yes	180.0 ℃, 15.0 h	76.0	97.0	[37]

Catalytic system	Catalyst	Alkaline condition	Reaction condition	EG conversion/%	GA selectivity/%	Ref.
Homogeneous	[Cp*Ir(bpyO)]OH^－	Yes	100.0 ℃, 12.0 h	100.0	—	[20]
	[HN(C₂H₄PPh₂)₂]Mn(CO)₂Br	Yes	140.0 ℃, 12.0 h	100.0	96.0	[21]
	NNN-Ru	Yes	100.0 ℃, 2.0 h	100.0	94.0	[22]
Heterogeneous	PtMn/MCM-41 (In-70)	No	60.0 ℃, 8.0 h	92.1	93.8	[23]
	Pt₁/HAP	Yes	50.0 ℃, 16.0 h	79.1	98.3	[24]
	Pt/CS	Yes	70.0 ℃, 2.0 h	87.3	93.0	[25]
	Pt/NaY	No	70.0 ℃, 2.0 h	89.6	91.3	[26]
	Pt^B@Cᵏ	Yes	140.0 ℃, 3.0 h	77.4	72.6	[27]
	Pt-Fe/CeO₂	Yes	70.0 ℃, 4.0 h	100.0	62.0	[28]
	Pt/Sn-Beta	No	70.0 ℃, 2.0 h	90.0	81.0	[29]
	Commercial Pt/C	No	30.0 ℃, 0.5 h	60.0	>90.0	[30]
	Au/C	Yes	70.0 ℃, 1.0 h	—	98.0	[31]
	2.78Au/Al₂O₃I	Yes	70.0 ℃	—	>95.0	[32]
	2.6Au/Al₂O₃(D)	Yes	76.0 ℃	—	>95.0	[33]
	AuPt/CeO₂	Yes	70.0 ℃	≥90.0	90.0	[34]
	Au/NiO	Yes	130.0 ℃, 3.0 h	≈100.0	87.6	[35]
	Ni₃Sn/CeZrO₂	Yes	270.0 ℃, 2.0 h	68.0	—	[36]
	Cu/CNF	Yes	180.0 ℃, 15.0 h	76.0	97.0	[37]

Catalyst	Reaction condition	Working electrode potential/ (V vs. RHE)	FE/%	GA selectivity/%	Ref.
Pd₁Ag₁ NPs	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.85/50 mA/mg Pd	—	97.0/0.75 V vs. RHE	[38]
PdSb bimeallene	1.0 mol/L KOH, 0.1 mol/L EG	0.60/10 mA/cm²	—	—	[39]
PdSn metallene	4.0 mol/L KOH, 2.3 mol/L EG	0.90/100 mA/cm²	92.5/0.97 V vs. RHE	—	[40]
PdCu MCs	1 mol/L KOH, strongly alkaline hydrolysate of PET	—	93.6/0.83 V vs. RHE	—	[41]
PdBi/NF	1.0 mol/L KOH, 0.5 mol/L EG	—	>99.0	—	[42]
PdAgPt/Co	3.0 mol/L KOH, 2.0 mol/L EG	—	—	93.6/200 A/m²	[43]
Pd-CuCo₂O₄	1.0 mol/L NaOH, 0.5 mol/L NaCl, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.80/200 mA/cm²	96.1/0.90 V vs. RHE	—	[44]
Pd/Ni(OH)₂/NF	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.53/10 mA/cm²	94.2/1.20 V vs. RHE	—	[45]
Pd/a-Fe₂O₃	1.0 mol/L KOH, 0.5 mol/L EG	0.85/6.83 A/mg Pd	—	93.8/6.83 A/mg Pd	[46]
Pd-CoCr₂O₄	5.0 mol/L NaOH, 2.0 mol/L EG	1.25/290 mA/cm²	—	94.5/1.25 V vs. RHE	[47]
Pd/NiMoO₄/NF	1.0 mol/L NaOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.79/100 mA/cm²	95.7/1.00 V vs. RHE	—	[48]
Pd-Co₃O₄/NF	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.72/100 mA/cm²	93.1/0.90 V vs. RHE	—	[49]
Pd-Ni(OH)₂/NF	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.69/100 mA/cm²	94.1/1.00 V vs. RHE	91.6/1.00 V vs. RHE	[50]
Pd₃S NAs	1.0 mol/L KOH, 0.5 mol/L EG	—	83.6/0.87 V vs. RHE	—	[51]
PtAg/NF	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.80/264 mA/cm²	95.7/0.70 V vs. RHE	—	[52]
Pt-Ni(OH)₂/NF	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.61/100 mA/cm²	90.1/0.80 V vs. RHE	—	[53]
RhIn/C	3.0 mol/L KOH, 0.3 mol/L EG	—	75.4/0.65 V vs. RHE	85.0/0.65 V vs. RHE	[54]
Co-Ni/CP	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	—	91/1.4 V vs. RHE	96.3/150 mA/cm²	[55]
CoO/CFP	1.0 mol/L KOH, 0.1 mol/L EG	1.39/10 mA/cm²	—	—	[56]
Ni₁-Fe₁-N-C	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.77/100 mA/cm²	>90.0/50~500 C	>90.0/500 C	[57]

Catalyst	Reaction condition	Working electrode potential/ (V vs. RHE)	FE/%	GA selectivity/%	Ref.
Pd₁Ag₁ NPs	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.85/50 mA/mg Pd	—	97.0/0.75 V vs. RHE	[38]
PdSb bimeallene	1.0 mol/L KOH, 0.1 mol/L EG	0.60/10 mA/cm²	—	—	[39]
PdSn metallene	4.0 mol/L KOH, 2.3 mol/L EG	0.90/100 mA/cm²	92.5/0.97 V vs. RHE	—	[40]
PdCu MCs	1 mol/L KOH, strongly alkaline hydrolysate of PET	—	93.6/0.83 V vs. RHE	—	[41]
PdBi/NF	1.0 mol/L KOH, 0.5 mol/L EG	—	>99.0	—	[42]
PdAgPt/Co	3.0 mol/L KOH, 2.0 mol/L EG	—	—	93.6/200 A/m²	[43]
Pd-CuCo₂O₄	1.0 mol/L NaOH, 0.5 mol/L NaCl, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.80/200 mA/cm²	96.1/0.90 V vs. RHE	—	[44]
Pd/Ni(OH)₂/NF	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.53/10 mA/cm²	94.2/1.20 V vs. RHE	—	[45]
Pd/a-Fe₂O₃	1.0 mol/L KOH, 0.5 mol/L EG	0.85/6.83 A/mg Pd	—	93.8/6.83 A/mg Pd	[46]
Pd-CoCr₂O₄	5.0 mol/L NaOH, 2.0 mol/L EG	1.25/290 mA/cm²	—	94.5/1.25 V vs. RHE	[47]
Pd/NiMoO₄/NF	1.0 mol/L NaOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.79/100 mA/cm²	95.7/1.00 V vs. RHE	—	[48]
Pd-Co₃O₄/NF	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.72/100 mA/cm²	93.1/0.90 V vs. RHE	—	[49]
Pd-Ni(OH)₂/NF	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.69/100 mA/cm²	94.1/1.00 V vs. RHE	91.6/1.00 V vs. RHE	[50]
Pd₃S NAs	1.0 mol/L KOH, 0.5 mol/L EG	—	83.6/0.87 V vs. RHE	—	[51]
PtAg/NF	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.80/264 mA/cm²	95.7/0.70 V vs. RHE	—	[52]
Pt-Ni(OH)₂/NF	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.61/100 mA/cm²	90.1/0.80 V vs. RHE	—	[53]
RhIn/C	3.0 mol/L KOH, 0.3 mol/L EG	—	75.4/0.65 V vs. RHE	85.0/0.65 V vs. RHE	[54]
Co-Ni/CP	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	—	91/1.4 V vs. RHE	96.3/150 mA/cm²	[55]
CoO/CFP	1.0 mol/L KOH, 0.1 mol/L EG	1.39/10 mA/cm²	—	—	[56]
Ni₁-Fe₁-N-C	1.0 mol/L KOH, 1.0 mol/L EG	0.77/100 mA/cm²	>90.0/50~500 C	>90.0/500 C	[57]

Catalyst type	Catalyst	Reaction conditions	Light source	EG conversion/%	GA yield/%	Ref.
Non-metallic photocatalyst	CPDs-CN	Vacuum, 1.0 mol/L KOH	Xenon lamp	—	—	[62]
Non-metallic photocatalyst	B-g-C₃N₄NT	Argon, 0.1 mol/L NaOH	Xenon lamp	7.8	—	[63]
Metallic photocatalyst	Cu-Pt/ZrO₂	Air, alkali-free	Visible light	94.8	72.0	[64]
Metallic photocatalyst	Au-Pt/ZrO₂	Air, alkali-free	Xenon lamp	—	76.9	[65]